Organization

Principles

Given the unpredictable nature of election campaigns and the inherent logistical challenges, organizing a debate can be a demanding task whether for the first or 20th time. Debate groups may wish to keep several principles in mind to help guide decision-making as inevitable issues arise.

Be Impartial and Organized Above All

The success of a debate sponsoring group rides on its ability to establish and maintain a reputation as a fair, neutral and transparent organization. In addition, the sponsor must be capable of staging well organized, professional and dignified forums. Perceptions of partisanship or a track record of poorly run debates can undermine an organization’s ability to convince candidates to take part in the short- and long-term.

Focus on the Ultimate Goal

The purpose of a debate is straightforward — to help voters make a more informed choice among candidates for elected office. In the crush of organizing a debate, sponsors should seek to keep this goal as a guiding principle and avoid going down paths that may be perceived, fairly or unfairly, as promoting particular media or commercial interests.

Keep it Simple

A debate requires managing myriad organizational, production, media and political issues simultaneously. Keeping plans basic — especially for a first time debate — means there is less that can go awry. A simplified approach can help minimize last minute complications that take time and energy away from achieving the core mission of informing voters. More sophisticated production and organizational elements can be added over time to subsequent debates once a sponsor is more experienced and established.

No Such Thing as a Bad Debate

Although debate sponsors should stand steadfast on some key issues, a less than perfect debate is better than no debate at all. Even a flawed debate informs voters to some degree. Moreover, just having a debate is a first step toward the forums becoming an expected and integral part of elections. Sponsors can make adjustments and improve future debates with each election cycle. (See Tip: Is a Debate a “Success” Without All the Candidates?)

No Candidates, No Debates

A corollary to the point above, sponsors may wish to be flexible when faced with sticky negotiation issues that could make the difference between candidates agreeing to debate or walking away. Few countries have laws requiring candidates to debate, which means that sponsors may have to go to what seem like extraordinary lengths to secure their participation. While core principles such as political neutrality and fairness must not be sacrificed under any circumstances, in the long-run it is generally worth making concessions to candidates that prevent negotiations and the debate itself from collapsing. As public expectations and media support for debates grow over time, the inevitability that debates will take place increases and the ability of candidates to evade debates or impose conditions diminishes.

Sponsors

Candidate debates around the world have been successfully organized by a range of entities, including nongovernmental organizations, election authorities, broadcast regulatory bodies, media associations and individual TV and radio stations. Each approach brings different benefits and tradeoffs according to the dynamics of a particular country. In this respect, there is no single best method for organizing debates. This principle is exemplified by the variety of organizational models that debate groups around the world have developed. At the same time, the approaches generally share fundamental characteristics that help to: 

• Ensure impartiality and independence;
• Provide the organizational capacity to hold a well-structured debate;
• Have credibility that helps generate support for debates with political parties, media and the general public;
• Meet legal regulations affecting debates in a particular country; and
• Help institutionalize the practice of debates over the long-term.

In organizing debates, sponsors around the world have adopted a range of approaches tailored to their culture and politics. Options range from starting a new debate group from scratch to building on the credibility and capacity of an existing organization. 

Just having a debate is a first step toward the forums becoming an expected and integral part of elections.

Debates-Only Organization

In this model, sponsors can charter an independent civic organization with the sole long-term mission of organizing debates. The group can focus staff and resources just on debates and avoid juggling a broader agenda.  Zeroing in on candidate debates can also make it easier for the group to establish its debate “brand” with the public, media and candidates. The group may have a board and staff to carry out activities. An example of this approach is the U.S.-based Commission on Presidential Debates.1

Permanent or Ad Hoc Coalition

This approach includes bringing different groups together in an alliance for the purpose of organizing debates. In practice,  such coalitions have ranged in size from two to more than a dozen organizations. One advantage of a coalition approach is that the assembled groups collectively have greater respect from candidates, organizational capacity and potential resources, which can encourage candidates to take part. The coalition may be launched with a separate name distinct from its member organizations to highlight the effort. Examples of this model include the Jamaica Debates Commission, a partnership between the Chamber of Commerce and the Media Association of Jamaica, and the Nigeria Elections Debate Group, a coalition of some 18 media, labor and women’s groups, among others.2 Some groups have come together on an ad hoc basis for a specific debate, retaining their individual organizational identities rather than adopting a separate brand as a coalition. In addition, if a single sponsoring organization is seen, fairly or unfairly, by some as politically biased, forming a coalition with other organizations that provide perceived balance can help reinforce an image of impartiality. Potentially competing debate sponsors may also seek to join forces. (See Tip: Compete or Collaborate?)

Debate Leadership or Advisory Board

In some countries, sponsors opt to build on the organizational strengths and reputation for impartiality of an existing organization. This can include bolstering a well-established group by adding a board of respected figures to help advise or lead the debate effort. By lending their experience, personal credibility, and public stature, board members can help increase the confidence of candidates and citizens in the debates initiative. Potential board members can include statesmen, religious and civic leaders or other notables. Inviting board members to join who are respected by specific segments of society can also reinforce the impartial image of the sponsoring group. The Institute of Economic Affairs of Ghana is an example of this model.3

Established Organization

Sponsors can make debates one element of their good government advocacy or election activities. In this approach, the debate is organized under the auspices and name of an existing group. This enables the group to take advantage of its organizational capacity and reputation for neutrality and professionalism. The Peruvian election monitoring organization, Transparencia, is an example of this approach.4  A variation is to establish a debate effort as a long-term initiative of a respected organization such as the Trinidad and Tobago Debates Commission, which is a project of the Trinidad and Tobago Chamber of Commerce and Industry.5

Whatever organizational option a debate sponsor chooses, the group must be governed and perceived to be founded on the principles of impartiality and transparency. Are the group’s decision-makers seen as evenhanded and neutral? Have they agreed to maintain certain ethical standards in their organization of debates? Adherence to these principles is essential to maintain the trust and support of candidates and the electorate. Organizers may wish to establish a public ethics pledge for members of the debate group. (See Example: Mission Statement and Ethics Code.)

Task List

Establish a Debate Group that Fits Best

As noted on page 14, a first step for sponsors is to determine the best type of organization to hold a debate based on the available time, the political environment and legal regulations in each country.6

Identify and Assign Staffing Responsibilities

There are many tasks large and small that contribute collectively to a successful debate. Depending on the scope and scale of the debate, an individual or teams may play several roles. The general areas of responsibility and specific tasks can include:

• Overall debate coordination
• Budgeting and financial management
• Debate format
• Debate venue
• Fundraising
• Negotiations with media
• Negotiations with candidates
• Public relations
• Production
• Security
• Volunteers

Choose a Debate Venue

One of the most important decisions for a sponsor is selecting a venue for the debate from a variety of options, including school auditoriums, civic centers, theaters, hotels, television studios or outdoor spaces. The venue that is best suited may be determined by the scale and format of the debate. Above all, the location should be seen as politically neutral by the candidates and public. Any perceptions of bias can be used by candidates as a reason to bow out. (See Tip: Selecting a Debate Venue.)

Decide on a Debate Format

Choose an appropriate format for the debate that will be incorporated into the debate plan presented to candidates and coordinated with the sponsor’s production team. Sponsors should bear in mind that format options have different technical requirements that can add to organizational tasks and costs. (See page 25 for format options.)

Develop a Budget

How much does a debate cost? Amounts vary widely and depend on the local economy, the ability to secure in-kind contributions and the level of office for which the debate is held. For example, a 2005 presidential debate in East Timor cost $360 USD and a 2011 parliamentary leader debate in Jamaica ran to approximately $40,000 USD.7 Purchasing television and radio airtime can often represent a substantial outlay if media outlets do not provide it at reduced rates or as an in-kind public service contribution. To develop a preliminary idea of the resources needed for a debate, it may be helpful to pencil out costs for some of the general line items commonly found in a debate budget including:

• Staff salary and benefits
• Consultants
• Venue rental (e.g. theater, hotel)
• Television and radio airtime
• Security (e.g. private security services for the debate venue)
• Food and catering (e.g. for the day of debate)
• Transportation (e.g. national air travel, vehicle rental, taxis)
• Television production (e.g. labor, equipment, set, make-up artists)
• Printing and graphics (e.g. tickets, programs, credentials, posters)
• Publicity (e.g. website, streaming video, TV and radio spots, newspaper ads)
• Organizational overhead (e.g. rent, telephone, utilities)

Put a Financial Management and Reporting System in Place

The capacity to accurately track and report on debate related expenditures will be important to staying on budget and for the long-term credibility of the debate group. This includes being able to report back to contributors on how funds were spent. Some debate groups publicly post information on their donors, budgets and expenditures to demonstrate their commitment to transparency and further build public confidence in their activities.

Secure Funding

Once a budget has been developed for the debate, fundraising efforts may be needed to cover costs. Many debate groups seek member contributions or support from foundations, the private sector or other national and international donors to help underwrite the costs. Debate organizers can appeal to sponsors on the benefits of debates for the country as well as offer public acknowledgement for their contributions. In addition to determining what types of donor recognition to offer, it is important to set limits where donor involvement is not appropriate, such as providing input on questions, placing commercial logos behind candidates on stage or influencing the organization of debates in areas that would affect the perceived impartiality, quality or independence of a debate sponsoring group.

Consulting with the key players can help flag any potential obstacles that can make or break a debate.

Present Plan to Candidates, Parties, Media and other Central Players

To begin to engage the key actors in the debate plans, sponsors may wish to start by consulting with political parties and candidates to introduce the general idea of debates and hopefully receive their input and support. Sponsors may also want to get in touch with others who may have a role in the debates, including election authorities and the media, to make sure they are aware of the effort and to gain their support. Consulting with the key players can help flag any potential obstacles that can make or break a debate. As debate dates approach, regular meetings with candidates will be needed to finalize key details.

Ensure Public Safety

A debate is often the only time when candidates are together at the same time in the same place, making public safety arrangements essential. Close coordination with police and other security officials will be important at all stages of the debate planning process. This includes debate day security for candidates, the facility and debate production equipment, and even road closures and traffic control. Audience ticketing and media credentialing procedures can help provide the sponsor with additional control over access to the debate venue.

Set Guidelines for Tickets and the Debate Audience

If a debate has a live audience, the sponsor will need to decide who will be invited and how many people can be accommodated at the debate venue once production needs are taken into consideration. Developing a clear ticketing policy early on can help address anticipated requests from the public and VIPs as the debate approaches. It will also be important to establish rules for audience behavior during the debate, such as remaining silent or not using flash cameras, which can be distracting to candidates and affect the quality of the TV or radio broadcast. It is important to remember that the larger the audience, the greater the logistical challenges and possibility of noise. Make plans for handling audience security contingencies such as cheering, heckling or other disruptive behavior.

Recruit Debate Volunteers

In addition to having regular staff assisting with the debate, sponsors may wish to recruit volunteers to help on the day of the debate, which also provides an opportunity to involve local community groups or students. Having a coordinator to recruit and manage volunteers can help ensure this support is used effectively and the debate experience is positive for the volunteers.

Have a Legal Advisor Available

Having quick access to legal advice can be useful on several fronts. This can include complying with electoral regulations or requirements for forming a debate sponsoring organization. An advisor can also assist in the event of legal issues, such as lawsuits or injunctions, from candidates who may not be invited to take part in a debate because they do not meet pre-established participation criteria, or incidents that occur at the debates themselves.

Begin Negotiations with Candidates

After presenting a plan, the debate sponsor generally takes part in a series of discussions with the candidates’ representatives to finalize the logistical arrangements and format for the debate. (See page 46 for approaches to negotiations with candidates.)

Arrange Media

See the Participants chapter.

Choose Candidates

See the Participants chapter.

Staging

A range of formats can be used to help ensure debates are interesting and informative. The basic format elements, which can be combined in a variety of ways, can include:

• How the candidates are positioned on stage;
• Roles of moderator(s) and panelists;
• Who asks the candidates questions; and
• The established topics and time limits.

Candidates

There are three basic variations for positioning candidates on stage for a debate:

• Standing at podiums;
• Seated in chairs or around a table or desk; and
• Bordered by an audience (for a “town hall” style debate).

Moderators and panelists will also require staging as determined by the way candidates are positioned. (See Example: Candidate Staging.)

Example: Candidate Staging

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On Stage Conduct

As part of the debate rules, sponsors in some countries encourage candidates to reach agreement on how they will conduct themselves to maintain the dignity and decorum of the event. Such mutually agreed upon guidelines are designed to promote civility during the debate and can include rules indicating how candidates will address one another and commitments to avoid personal insults, offensive language or other unconstructive and distracting behavior.

On Stage Materials

Other debate guidelines can govern the type of aids or support candidates are permitted to have during the debate. Making the rules public and ensuring debaters have a clear understanding in advance of the debate can help avoid scenarios where candidates accuse their opponents or the sponsor of unfairness. At a minimum, candidates are generally provided with water, pens and a blank pad to jot down notes. In addition, it may be useful to have clear agreement on other types of support, such as whether candidates can:

Bring prepared notes or other briefing materials on stage;
Use audiovisual aids such as charts, photos or other types of props;
Consult with advisors during any breaks.

It is also important to confirm who will remove notes after a debate to ensure a candidate’s privacy and avoid having the contents end up in the media.

Moderator and Questioners

Debate groups have developed a variety of approaches for moderating and posing questions to candidates during a debate:

Single Moderator

In this approach, one individual both manages the flow of the debate and adherence to the agreed upon rules as well as asks the candidates questions. This arrangement is designed to maximize the amount of time candidates have to speak and facilitate follow-up questions by the moderator. Some debate groups have found it a challenge to identify an individual with the perceived impartiality and journalistic skills to play both roles. In that case, the roles of moderator and questioner may be divided among several individuals.

Panel of Questioners

In this case, several individuals ask the candidates questions. A separate moderator may also take part to manage the overall debate and keep time. This approach can be useful in providing roles for journalists from several print and electronic media outlets, which can help engage the media in the debates. In politically divided countries where journalists may be perceived as having ethnic, regional or political biases, having several panelists of different profiles can increase candidates’ confidence that the debate will be fair.

Citizen Questioners

Also known as a town hall format, in this approach candidates take questions from a live citizen audience. A moderator manages the overall debate and time limits and in some cases may ask initial and follow-up questions.

Citizen Questions via Phone, Internet or Taped

In this instance, questions come from the general public remotely via the Internet or cellphone (e.g., SMS texts, e-mails, YouTube, Twitter, etc.). Video questions from citizens can also be taped in advance and shown at the debate. It is recommended that sponsors screen the questions in advance to ensure they are relevant,  civil in tone and not duplicative. (See Example: New Media and Debates.)

Candidate Questions

The debaters pose questions directly to their counterparts.

Audience

Conduct

If a debate has a live audience, rules on its behavior are essential. Debate sponsors should  determine whether the audience will be asked to remain silent or allowed to react audibly to the discussion, including rooting for or against candidates. This decision can affect whether a candidate feels comfortable participating. Audience behavior, particularly if partisan supporters attend, can be mutually agreed upon with candidates and included in a well publicized code of conduct.

Language

The language chosen for the debate can have strong cultural and political implications. In countries where multiple languages are spoken and politics are affected by regional or ethnic divisions, the language candidates speak can be an important symbolic act and a factor in the campaign. Some candidates may also feel personally disadvantaged by the language picked for the debate, which can affect their willingness to participate. Debate sponsors may wish to discuss and achieve consensus on the language or languages of the debate in negotiations with political parties, candidates and even the media broadcasting the debate.

Timing

Time Limits

The amount of time given candidates for opening and closing statements, questions, answers, discussion and rebuttals can vary depending on the specific format and the number of candidates in a debate. Candidates are commonly allocated 1 to 2 minutes to answer a question. Rebuttals can generally range from 30 seconds to 1 minute. In some countries, a question and answer segment can be followed by an unstructured discussion period of variable length (e.g. 5 to 10 minutes), which requires a skilled moderator to manage. To keep the focus on the candidates rather than the moderators or panelists, the questions posed should be clear and short with a time limit of approximately 30 seconds or less.

Debate Length

The duration of a debate depends on a variety of factors, including whether it will be broadcast, the number of candidates and how many debates there will be. One to three hours is a common range. For example, U.S. general election presidential debates are 90 minutes in length. Factors such as the amount of time allocated for questions and answers or whether commercial breaks are included will affect how many topics can be addressed during a debate.

Debates can be focused on specific topics to allow for a more in-depth discussion and to ensure these areas are addressed by the candidates.

Content

Topics

Sponsors can organize debates open to questions on any election issue of concern to voters. Conversely, debates can be focused on specific topics to allow for a more in-depth discussion and to ensure these areas are addressed by the candidates. When dividing debates into different themes, sponsors have taken a variety of approaches ranging from just two topic areas, such as foreign and domestic matters, to more than a dozen issues.

Opening and Closing Statements

Debates can include statements by the candidates at the outset and conclusion of the forum. These remarks generally range from one to two minutes in length. Although candidates often advocate for both opening and closing remarks, sponsors may want to consider having  just one such presentation. This leaves more time for what audiences often regard as more spontaneous and informative questions and answers rather than a pre-packaged campaign-style speech.

Questions

The questions posed to candidates can come from a range of sources.

Moderator/Panelist

With this approach, the panelists or moderator, who are often journalists, academics or policy experts, develop the questions that they direct to candidates. They may solicit ideas from the general public or issue experts to help develop the queries. In this case, the debate sponsor has no knowledge or control of the specific questions that are asked. This approach can help insulate the debate sponsor from criticisms of alleged bias following debates if candidates are dissatisfied with the questions. (See Tip: Share the Question or Not?)

Debate Sponsor

The debate organizers can draft questions that are provided to the moderator or panelists to ask at the debate. In some countries, the questions are developed by a working group within the debate sponsoring organization, a process that may include soliciting questions from the public, civic advocacy groups, academics, policy experts or think tanks. Developing the questions gives sponsors greater control of the debate content and the tone of the questions. At the same time, sponsors also assume more responsibility should candidates complain of bias in the questions.

Public Opinion Polling

Survey research can also be used to identify the most pressing concerns of citizens. This information can be used by debate sponsors or panelists to develop questions.

Citizen Questions

As noted above, in some formats the general public can be invited to ask questions in person or they can be submitted via the Internet or taped in advance. During the debate, the questions can be read by the individual or moderator as determined by the format. It is recommended that questions be screened in advance for clarity, decorum and to avoid duplication.

Follow-up Questions

Moderators, panelists or town hall audience members can be given the option to ask short follow-up questions to clarify a candidate’s answer or to probe his or her positions more deeply.

• 1. For more information on the Commission on Presidential Debates, see www.debates.org
• 2. For more information on the Jamaica Debates Commission and Nigeria Elections Debate Group respectively see www.jamaicadebatescommission org and www.nedgonline.org
• 3. For more information on the Institute of Economic Affairs, see www.ieagh.org
• 4. For more information on Transparencia, see www.transparencia.org.pe
• 5. For more information on the Trinidad and Tobago Debate Commission, see www.ttdc.org.tt
• 6. With permission from the Commission on Presidential Debates (CPD), some concepts and text in sections (A) Organizational Tasks, (B) Negotiations with Candidates, (D) Production and (E) Public Relations in Chapter 5, “Organizing A Debate” are drawn directly from the CPD’s Guide to Hosting Your Own Debate, (CPD ©2012) and adapted for an international context.
• 7. The 2005 East Timor presidential debate received extensive in-kind support, including UN-sponsored radio and television broadcasts and a free university venue and other assistance. For more details on the Jamaican debate budget see the Jamaica Debates Commission publication, Facing the Electorate, A Manual for the Staging of General Election Debates at www.jamaicadebatescommission.org.